Meaning of Special Educational Needs (SEN)
The Special Educational Needs and Disability Code of Practice (2015) defines special educational needs as follows: “A child or young person has SEN if they have a learning difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made for him or her. A child of compulsory school age or a young person has a learning difficulty or disability if he or she: has a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of others of the same age, has a disability which prevents or hinders him or her from making use of facilities of a kind generally provided for others of the same age in inclusive schools.’ This implies that Special Educational Needs covers learners beyond those who may be included as having a disability and those children who are failing in school because they experience barriers that prevent them from achieving optimal progress in their learning and development.
2.1 Misconceptions and Traditional Beliefs about Learners with Special Educational Needs (SEN)
Misconception could be explained as a preconceived notion or a conceptual misunderstanding. These are cases in which something a person knows and believes does not match what is known to be scientifically correct. A lot of people who hold misconceptions do not even know that their ideas are false or incorrect. Misconception is held educationally about many subjects and concepts including gender and learners with special educational needs. Below are the misconceptions and traditional beliefs that are held about learners with special educational needs:
- People who use wheelchairs cannot move and must stay in their chairs. They believe that they are chronically ill therefore must remain in their chairs. This is not true because majority can walk, but their strength may be limited so they use a wheelchair to help them to travel longer distances.
- All persons with hearing disabilities can read lips: Lip-reading skills vary among people who use them and are never entirely reliable.
- People who are blind acquire a “sixth sense.” Although most people who are blind develop their remaining senses more fully which make them get about and perform all duties, they do not have a “sixth sense”.
- People with disabilities are more comfortable with their own kind.
- People with a hearing impairment cannot speak. A hearing impairment does not affect the vocal cords, although it can affect a person’s ability to hear and monitor the sounds he or she makes. Some people who have hearing impairments make a choice not to use their voice while others choose to speak. The type and degree of hearing loss as well as the age of the person when his or her hearing was lost, also influences speech.
- People with disabilities can only work at special jobs made just for them.
- People who have developmental disabilities do not have the same feelings as people without disabilities
- Disability is contagious therefore individuals who are ‘normal’ should not get close to those with disabilities.
- Learners who suffer from health impairment such as epilepsy should be give water during crisis and spoon forced into their mouth before they can regain their consciousness.
- Learners with special educational needs are seen as dependent therefore cannot do anything by themselves.
2.1.1 Misconceptions/Traditional Beliefs about the causes of Disability
- Disability can be considered a curse from God for the sins of family or individual.
- Some may believe that is due to supernatural powers and witchcraft.
- The anger of the ancestors towards their descendants who failed to perform certain traditional rituals.
- There is a belief that if a pregnant woman has seen and laughed at a disabled person the ancestors will curse her by giving her a disabled child.
- An expectant mother eating some forbidden foods. It’s believed in some cultures in Ghana that, an expectant mother who eats snail may give birth to a child who drools.
- A pregnant woman being wicked to strangers
- Engaging in sexual related activities with close relatives could result in giving birth to a child with disability
- Barren ladies who go to ask the gods for child may end up giving birth to disabled children.
- 2.2 Forms/Types of Special Educational Needs
According to the Inclusive Education Policy of Ghana (2015), students with special educational needs goes beyond the traditional disabilities to include; intellectual disability, street children, Gifted and Talented, Nomadic children (shepherd boys, fisher-folks’ children and domestic child workers), Physical disability, Children exploited for financial purposes, Specific Learning Disability, Autism, children living with HIV/AIDS, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Hearing Impairment, Visual Impairment, Multiple-disability (Deaf-Blindness), Speech and Communication Disorders, Health impairment and chronic diseases (Rheumatism, Epilepsy, Asthma, Spina Bifida and Sickle Cell Anaemia) Children displaced by Natural Catastrophes and Social Conflicts, Emotional and Behaviour Disorder. For the purpose of our study, the focus will be on four of the disabilities i.e, intellectual disability (ID), visual impairment (VI), hearing impairment (VI) and physical disability (PD)
2.2.1 Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder. A developmental disorder is a condition that appears early in life and has a permanent effect on the way an individual grows, develops and acquires skills. The concept intellectual disability have for a long time struggle to adopt one acceptable definition.
Intellectual Disability is a condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. The disability originates before age 18.
Grossman (1983) refers to intellectual disability as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning associated with deficit in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period of 0-18years.
American Association of Mental Retardation (AAMR) (1992) views intellectual disability as substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterised by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skills areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, and must manifest before 18 years. From the above definitions, there are three key issues that describe individuals with ID. These are;
Sub-average intellectual functioning: this means individuals with ID are unable to do well in academic.
Deficit in adaptive behaviour: individuals inability to do things on his/her own. For example, eating, wearing of dress, toileting among others.
Developmental age: ID manifest from birth before age 18. This means ID condition is mostly seen before age 18.
Classification of ID
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) applies the term ID to children having Intelligent Quotient (I.Q) of 70 and below. AAMD classified individuals into four categories namely; mild, moderate, severe and profound with its corresponding range of I.Q.
- Mild ID have IQ score ranging 55- 70
- Moderate ID have IQ score ranging 40-54
- Severe ID have IQ score ranging 25-39
- Profound ID have IQ score ranging 24-0
Levels of support needed
The intensities of support are measured as intermittent, limited, extensive, and pervasive (Greenspan & Switzky, 2006). The levels of support needed by a person who has an intellectual or developmental disability:
- Intermittent refers to support as needed but that is not necessarily present at all times.
- Limited refers to support provided on a regular basis for a short period of time.
- Extensive support indicates ongoing and regular involvement.
- The pervasive level of support describes constant high-intensity help provided across environments and involving more staff members than the other categories.
Causes of ID
- Genetic condition such as chromosomal disorder like downs syndrome
- Drugs used by mother during prenatal period (smoking, alcohol).
- Maternal malnutrition
- Diseases such as syphilis, mumps, rubella (German measles), encephalitis, and meningitis
- Over-exposure radiation (X-ray)
- Lead poisoning: this develops most often when a child repeatedly licks, eats or inhales chips of lead-based paints. When the level of lead builds up in the body over the course of many months, it can cause anaemia, seizures, brain damage and even death.
- Severe head injuries from accident or child abuse
- Children born premature
- Abnormality in the position of the foetus at the start of delivery. In every normal delivery, the foetus must point the head towards the cervix and the face towards the mothers back. In some instances this is not so. The baby comes with either the legs, arms, buttocks or lie across the pelvic opening or birth canal.
- Prolonged labour leading to anoxia and hypoxia
- ID can sometimes result from problems associated with the placenta, the organ that supplies the foetus with nourishment.
Characteristics of Learners with ID
- Short attention span. Thus they find it difficult to keep focus on a task for long
- They are unable to transfer learned information to new situation.
- Have difficulty in the use of their gross and fine motor skills especially the severe and profound ID. E.g catching, throwing, writing, buttoning, zipping, running and so on.
- Poor memory. They easily forget what has been learn in one situation.
- Have difficulty thinking abstractly.
- They find it difficult to complete task given them.
- They are restless most often finding difficult to sit at one place for a long time.
- They engage in self-injurious activities such as biting part of the body, head banging etc.
2.2.2 Visual Impairment (VI)
Visual impairment can be said to the condition where an individual has a limitation or total loss in using his/her vision to perform task as expected. Legally, a definition of children with visual impairments divides these children into two large groups on the basis of their ability to use the visual sense for learning after maximum correction. Thus blind and low vision. A child who is blind cannot use vision for learning but still can be responsive to light and darkness and may have some visual imagery. According to The British Blind Act (1962) a person shall be regarded as blind, if his visual acuity is so restricted that he is unable by reason of such restriction to perform any work for which eyesight is essential. They require instruction in braille to be able to read and write. Blind people have visual acuity of 20/200. If a child is born blind it is called congenitally visual impaired but those who develop the problem late are said to be adventitiously visual impaired.
Children with low vision have difficulty accomplishing visual tasks, but they can learn through the visual sense by the use of various special technologies such magnifying glasses and teaching techniques. All About Vision (2019) defines low vision as a describe significant visual impairment that can’t be corrected fully with glasses, contact lenses, medication or eye surgery. The visual acuity is 20/70. Visual acuity is the distance the eye can see. Most hospitals and clinics use the Snellen chart to determine visual acuity. If the visual acuity is 20/70 then it means the child or the person can see at 29 feet distance while someone with normal vision can see at 70 feet distance. The low vision can read printed materials when adaptation is made. The major educational distinction is that children who are blind use their tactile or auditory senses as their primary learning channels, whereas children with low vision mostly use their residual vision in performing tasks.
Causes of VI
- Injury to the eyes: Injury to the eyes while playing or at work or due to accidents may result in vision loss and impairment.
- Infections of the eyes: Sometimes if the mother has had a viral infection like German measles that is transmitted from the mother to the developing fetus during pregnancy the baby may be born with blindness or visual impairment
- Inherited conditions of blindness and vision impairment
- Malnutrition e.g lack of vitamin A.
- Drug abuse
- Nystagmus: uncontrollable movement of the eye
- Strabismus: is a visual problem in which the eyes are not aligned properly and point in different directions. One eye may look straight ahead, while the other eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward.
- Cataract: Clouding of part or the entire lens of the eye. Normally, the lens is clear to let in the light that focuses on the retina. Cataracts prevent light from easily passing through the lens, and this causes loss of vision.
- Glaucoma: This condition results due to raised pressure within the eyes. The increased pressure impairs vision by damaging the optic nerve.
Characteristics of Learners with VI
- They write with a lot of mistakes
- They read with difficulty
- They experience dizziness or nausea after straining their eyes
- They read materials drawn closer to or far from them
- They stumble a lot
- They may have reddened eyes
- They scratch their eyes
- They are very sensitive to light and sometimes squints or frowns when gazing at object
- Shuts or covers one eye, tilts head or thrusts head forward
- Eyes are inflamed or watery
- Frequent formation of mucus on the corner of the eye
2.2.3 Hearing Impairment (HI)
A hearing loss is defined by the degree of loss, the type of loss, and the age at which the loss occurred. Charles and Malian (1980) explain hearing impairment as a condition where individuals hearing is either partially functional or profoundly dysfunctional to the extent that such individuals cannot under normal circumstances acquire and use speech language with or without the use of a hearing or any special method. Hearing impairment encompass deafness and hard-of-hearing.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) defines deafness as a hearing impairment that is severe enough that the child cannot process linguistic information through hearing, even when using amplification or hearing aids. Individuals with deafness can only learn through sign language (Council for Exceptional Children, 2006).
Bender (1960) defines hard-of-hearing individuals as those in whom the sense of hearing, although defective, is functional with or without a hearing aid. Being hard of hearing is defined as an impairment in hearing that may be permanent or fluctuating and that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but that is not included under the definition of deafness (CEC, 2006).
The severity of hearing losses is determined by the individual’s reception of sound as measured in decibels (dB). A hearing loss between (20-40 dB) is considered mild; moderate HI ranges (40–60 dBs); severe HI (60–80 dBs) and profound (more than 80 dBs) hearing loss, or, to use a more common term, deafness (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association -ASHA, 2008).
Types of HI
In connection with clinical diagnosis and medical treatment, hearing impairment can be classified into four main types namely:
- Conducive hearing loss: This result from complications in the outer or middle ear, e.g. accumulation of wax, foreign materials in the auditory channel.
- Sensorineural learning loss: Loss result damage to the cochlea and auditory nerves in the inner ear.
- Central hearing loss: this is a type of hearing loss resulting from impairment of the central nervous system.
- Mixed hearing loss: This loss comes about when there are problems (1) and (2) above.
Causes of HI
- Infections of the ear canal or middle ear resulting in fluid or pus buildup
- Perforation or scarring of the eardrum
- Wax buildup
- Dislocation of the middle ear bones (ossicles)
- Foreign object in the ear canal
- Otosclerosis (an abnormal bone growth in the middle ear)
- Abnormal growths or tumors
- Noise pollution
- Heredity
- Diseases such as mumps, German measles
- Presbycusis: a hearing loss as a result of old age.
Characteristics of the HI
Children with hearing impairment exhibit several characteristics. Below are some of them:
- Tendency to ask for words to be repeated
- Tendency to rub ears repeatedly
- Shouts when speaking to someone
- Watches the lips movement of a speaker
- Fail to carry out simple instructions
- Appear reluctant to speak freely
- Difficulty in articulating certain speech sounds
- Experiences frequent earaches and running ears
- Frowning face, bending or cupping the ear to hear
- Discharge of fluid from the ear
2.2.4 Physical Disability (PD)
A physical disability is the long-term loss or impairment of part of a person’s body function, resulting in a limitation of physical functioning, mobility, dexterity or stamina. Due to the functional loss the person will experience the inability to perform normal movements of the body, such as walking and mobility, sitting and standing, use of hands and arms, muscle control, etc.
Physical disorders are confined to gross and fine motor disabilities. If there are no defects in any part of the body, it should be possible for a person to perform gross and fine motor skills. The gross motor skills include throwing, lifting, running, skipping and jumping. Fine motor skills involve activities such as cutting, writing, drawing, threading, buttoning and lacing and just to mention a few.
Types of PD
Though many types exist, they can be put under two major conditions. These are neurological or orthopaedic and musculoskeletal conditions.
The musculoskeletal disability is defined as the inability to carry out distinctive activities associated with movements of the body parts due to macular or bone deformities, diseases or degeneration. These deformities affect the muscles, bones and joints. For example muscular dystrophy, arthritis, clubfoot.
The neurological/orthopaedic disability is defined as the inability to perform controlled movements of affected body parts due to diseases, degeneration or disorder of the nervous system. These disorders stem from the brain, the spinal cord and network of nerves. This type of condition includes cerebral palsy epilepsy, spinal cord injury and spinal nerves.
Characteristics of PD
The characteristics are dependent on the part of the body that have the defect.
- Individuals especially with cerebral palsy experience problems in voluntary movement,
- They also experience delay in gross and fine motor development.
- poor motor coordination
- speech and communication problems
Causes of PD
The causes of physical disorder can either be Congenital or Acquired. Congenital may be due to prenatal period or complications resulting from the birth process whereas acquired condition arises principally from diseases and accident.
- Children born premature
- Chromosomes aberration
- Attempted abortion
- Spina Bifida (SB): Spina Bifida (SB) refers to a range of developmental birth defects that affect the spinal cord, leaving nerves open to damage
- Cerebral Palsy affects the way the brain controls the body’s muscles resulting in speech, movement and posture difficulties. In most cases it is caused by brain injury or abnormal development that occurs before birth or before one month of age.
- Acquired brain injuries: Acquired brain injuries result in physical disabilities. They occur after birth as a result of damage to the brain through accidents, strokes, tumours, infections, degenerative neurological diseases, or lack of oxygen.
- Malnutrition
- Diseases such as poliomyelitis, mother suffering from German measles.
2.3 Conception of Inclusive education
Inclusive education means that all children, regardless of their ability level, are included in a regular classroom, or in the most appropriate or least restrictive environment (LRE), that students of all ability levels are taught as equals, and that teachers must adjust their curriculum and teaching methodologies so that all students benefit. Inclusive education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners. This involves restructuring the culture, policies and practices in schools so that they can respond to the diversity of students in their locality.
Inclusive Education (IE) is defined as a process of addressing the diverse needs of all learners by reducing barriers to, and within the learning environment. It means attending the age appropriate class of the child’s local school, with individually tailored support (UNICEF 2007). For a school to be inclusive, the attitudes of everyone in the school, including administrators, teachers, and other students, are positive towards students with disabilities. This also avoids wasting resources, and ‘shattered hopes,’ which often occurs in classrooms that are ‘one size fits all.’
2.3.1 Meaning of Exclusion in school
Exclusion is used to describe the process that occurs when a student is denied access to participation at school. This includes things such as access to the curriculum, access to friendship groups, access to teacher time and so forth (Booth, 1996).
Exclusion happens when students with disabilities are not permitted to register to attend a school, or when they register but are told not to come to school or when there are conditions placed on their attendance. Sometimes, students are registered but told they will receive their education from a teacher who will visit them at home – so effectively they are still excluded from school. Booth further defines exclusion is “the process of decreasing the participation of pupils in the cultures and curricula of mainstream schools” (pp. 34–35). Exclusion is restricting students to an environment with only special needs or disabled students.
Exclusion could also mean when students with disabilities are educated in separate environments (classes or schools) designed for students with impairments or with a particular impairment. Exclusion is most blatant when students with disabilities are forced to go to a school only for students with disabilities, but it also happens when students are educated in separate classes in a regular school. These are sometimes called resource classes.
2.3.2 Causes of Exclusion in School
There are many factors that account for the exclusion of learners with or without disabilities from school. Some of the causes include;
- Demonstrating persistent disruptive behaviour
- Physical assault against an adults and pupils
- Children’s health problems.
- Teachers and school administrators feel they don’t have the expertise to manage the instruction of students with special needs.
- Low level of educational performance of students can lead to their exclusion.
- Inability to settles school fees,
- Discriminatory treatment, or even violence, from principals, teachers and other students is also put forward as an aggravating factor.
2.3.3 Benefits of inclusive education
Including SEN has many benefits for the learner, parents, society and the state as well. Below are some of the benefits of inclusion:
- Inclusive education empowers teachers and students to think and work collaboratively.
- Promotes the notion that students with disabilities can learn alongside same-aged, non-disabled peers in the general education classroom (Willis, 2007).
- Research shows students with learning disabilities taught in such a manner demonstrate more independence and are socially better adjusted (Sapon-Shevin, 2008).
- It provides all children with opportunities to develop friendships with one another. Friendships provide role models and opportunities for growth.
- It encourages the involvement of parents in the education of their children and the activities of their local schools.
- Children without disabilities develop positive attitudes towards those different from them.
- It helps to reduce financial burden on society and government by providing one programme for all children rather than separate programmes.
2.3.4 Strategies for Promoting Inclusion in Schools
There are many ways of promoting inclusion of SEN in regular schools for the maximization of their potentials academically. Below are ways of promoting inclusion of SEN;
- School administrators clearly support and actively participate in providing leadership, guidance, and policies consistent with an inclusive philosophy.
- School Improvement Plans address school-based needs for including students with disabilities.
- All students receive instruction within an age-appropriate general education curricular framework.
- Teachers differentiate instruction for a variety of learners’ needs by incorporating visual, tactile, and kinesthetic materials and experiences.
- Teachers plan accommodations for students with disabilities, based on their IEP, and incorporate those accommodations into lesson plans and everyday instruction.
- Teachers use evidence-based instructional practices that are based on individual student learning styles and needs.
- General educators, special educators, and related service providers have time for collaborative planning.
- Students with disabilities receive most, if not all, of their special education and related services (e.g., physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech/language therapy) within the general education classroom, based on their Individual Education Program (IEP).
- Scaffold the lesson to provide various levels of support. Gradually remove supports as student’s progress toward mastery.
- Vary instructional methods and materials to meet the unique needs of learners.
- Assistive Technology: One of the support features of an IEP can be assistive technology, equipment or product systems that can meet some of the special needs of individual children with developmental disabilities (Parette, 1998). These assistive devices can use either low technology (such as communication boards or adapted books) or high technology (such as computerized visual amplification systems or augmentative communication devices that use digitized speech).
- Cooperative Learning: Cooperative learning is process whereby the teacher gives a task to a small group of students (typically four to six), who are expected to complete the task by working cooperatively with one another. The teacher may assign different responsibilities to different members of the group or ask each child to play a specific role (such as recorder, reporter, and searcher). Group instruction may actually be more advantageous than one-on-one instruction because of the economy of teacher effort, students learning how to interact with peers, and students learning from peers. Small-group instruction is the mode for the regular classroom if the students with special needs are to be included (King-Sears & Carpenter, 2005).
- Scaffolding: In scaffolding, the teacher models the expected behaviour and then guides the student through the early stages of understanding. As the student’s understanding increases, the teacher gradually withdraws aid (hence the name scaffolding). The goal is to have the student internalize the knowledge and operate independently.
- Positive Behaviour Supports (PBS): One of the most advanced moves made for children with disability has been the introduction of positive behavior supports (PBS) in educational programming. Behaviour problems and disruption have, unfortunately, been a major part of the lives of too many children with ID. This may be due in part to the fact that they have grown up in an environment in which such behaviour is the norm. It is therefore expected of teachers to help learners model and learn positive behaviour.
- Social Skills: Social skills are a critical component of the primary school or preschool curriculum for children with disability especially those with ID. Children can learn to take turns, share, and work cooperatively as part of their daily activities. The lunch table for young children is an excellent location for teaching social skills. Here, youngsters learn table manners, as well as how to pass and share food, help others (pouring juice, for example), and wait their
- Differentiated instruction describes the process where the teacher adjusts the level of difficulty of tasks to fit the level of development of the child. For example, if the rest of the class is doing complex multiplication or division problems, the child with intellectual disability may be given addition and subtraction problems at his or her level of comprehension.
- Reinforce effort and provide recognition.
- Monitor progress consistently and continually and provide frequent feedback.2.2 Forms/Types of Special Educational Needs
According to the Inclusive Education Policy of Ghana (2015), students with special educational needs goes beyond the traditional disabilities to include; intellectual disability, street children, Gifted and Talented, Nomadic children (shepherd boys, fisher-folks’ children and domestic child workers), Physical disability, Children exploited for financial purposes, Specific Learning Disability, Autism, children living with HIV/AIDS, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Hearing Impairment, Visual Impairment, Multiple-disability (Deaf-Blindness), Speech and Communication Disorders, Health impairment and chronic diseases (Rheumatism, Epilepsy, Asthma, Spina Bifida and Sickle Cell Anaemia) Children displaced by Natural Catastrophes and Social Conflicts, Emotional and Behaviour Disorder. For the purpose of our study, the focus will be on four of the disabilities i.e, intellectual disability (ID), visual impairment (VI), hearing impairment (VI) and physical disability (PD)
2.2.1 Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder. A developmental disorder is a condition that appears early in life and has a permanent effect on the way an individual grows, develops and acquires skills. The concept intellectual disability have for a long time struggle to adopt one acceptable definition.
Intellectual Disability is a condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. The disability originates before age 18.
Grossman (1983) refers to intellectual disability as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning associated with deficit in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period of 0-18years.
American Association of Mental Retardation (AAMR) (1992) views intellectual disability as substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterised by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skills areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, and must manifest before 18 years. From the above definitions, there are three key issues that describe individuals with ID. These are;
Sub-average intellectual functioning: this means individuals with ID are unable to do well in academic.
Deficit in adaptive behaviour: individuals inability to do things on his/her own. For example, eating, wearing of dress, toileting among others.
Developmental age: ID manifest from birth before age 18. This means ID condition is mostly seen before age 18.
Classification of ID
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) applies the term ID to children having Intelligent Quotient (I.Q) of 70 and below. AAMD classified individuals into four categories namely; mild, moderate, severe and profound with its corresponding range of I.Q.
- Mild ID have IQ score ranging 55- 70
- Moderate ID have IQ score ranging 40-54
- Severe ID have IQ score ranging 25-39
- Profound ID have IQ score ranging 24-0
Levels of support needed
The intensities of support are measured as intermittent, limited, extensive, and pervasive (Greenspan & Switzky, 2006). The levels of support needed by a person who has an intellectual or developmental disability:
- Intermittent refers to support as needed but that is not necessarily present at all times.
- Limited refers to support provided on a regular basis for a short period of time.
- Extensive support indicates ongoing and regular involvement.
- The pervasive level of support describes constant high-intensity help provided across environments and involving more staff members than the other categories.
Causes of ID
- Genetic condition such as chromosomal disorder like downs syndrome
- Drugs used by mother during prenatal period (smoking, alcohol).
- Maternal malnutrition
- Diseases such as syphilis, mumps, rubella (German measles), encephalitis, and meningitis
- Over-exposure radiation (X-ray)
- Lead poisoning: this develops most often when a child repeatedly licks, eats or inhales chips of lead-based paints. When the level of lead builds up in the body over the course of many months, it can cause anaemia, seizures, brain damage and even death.
- Severe head injuries from accident or child abuse
- Children born premature
- Abnormality in the position of the foetus at the start of delivery. In every normal delivery, the foetus must point the head towards the cervix and the face towards the mothers back. In some instances this is not so. The baby comes with either the legs, arms, buttocks or lie across the pelvic opening or birth canal.
- Prolonged labour leading to anoxia and hypoxia
- ID can sometimes result from problems associated with the placenta, the organ that supplies the foetus with nourishment.
Characteristics of Learners with ID
- Short attention span. Thus they find it difficult to keep focus on a task for long
- They are unable to transfer learned information to new situation.
- Have difficulty in the use of their gross and fine motor skills especially the severe and profound ID. E.g catching, throwing, writing, buttoning, zipping, running and so on.
- Poor memory. They easily forget what has been learn in one situation.
- Have difficulty thinking abstractly.
- They find it difficult to complete task given them.
- They are restless most often finding difficult to sit at one place for a long time.
- They engage in self-injurious activities such as biting part of the body, head banging etc.
2.2.2 Visual Impairment (VI)
Visual impairment can be said to the condition where an individual has a limitation or total loss in using his/her vision to perform task as expected. Legally, a definition of children with visual impairments divides these children into two large groups on the basis of their ability to use the visual sense for learning after maximum correction. Thus blind and low vision. A child who is blind cannot use vision for learning but still can be responsive to light and darkness and may have some visual imagery. According to The British Blind Act (1962) a person shall be regarded as blind, if his visual acuity is so restricted that he is unable by reason of such restriction to perform any work for which eyesight is essential. They require instruction in braille to be able to read and write. Blind people have visual acuity of 20/200. If a child is born blind it is called congenitally visual impaired but those who develop the problem late are said to be adventitiously visual impaired.
Children with low vision have difficulty accomplishing visual tasks, but they can learn through the visual sense by the use of various special technologies such magnifying glasses and teaching techniques. All About Vision (2019) defines low vision as a describe significant visual impairment that can’t be corrected fully with glasses, contact lenses, medication or eye surgery. The visual acuity is 20/70. Visual acuity is the distance the eye can see. Most hospitals and clinics use the Snellen chart to determine visual acuity. If the visual acuity is 20/70 then it means the child or the person can see at 29 feet distance while someone with normal vision can see at 70 feet distance. The low vision can read printed materials when adaptation is made. The major educational distinction is that children who are blind use their tactile or auditory senses as their primary learning channels, whereas children with low vision mostly use their residual vision in performing tasks.
Causes of VI
- Injury to the eyes: Injury to the eyes while playing or at work or due to accidents may result in vision loss and impairment.
- Infections of the eyes: Sometimes if the mother has had a viral infection like German measles that is transmitted from the mother to the developing fetus during pregnancy the baby may be born with blindness or visual impairment
- Inherited conditions of blindness and vision impairment
- Malnutrition e.g lack of vitamin A.
- Drug abuse
- Nystagmus: uncontrollable movement of the eye
- Strabismus: is a visual problem in which the eyes are not aligned properly and point in different directions. One eye may look straight ahead, while the other eye turns inward, outward, upward, or downward.
- Cataract: Clouding of part or the entire lens of the eye. Normally, the lens is clear to let in the light that focuses on the retina. Cataracts prevent light from easily passing through the lens, and this causes loss of vision.
- Glaucoma: This condition results due to raised pressure within the eyes. The increased pressure impairs vision by damaging the optic nerve.
Characteristics of Learners with VI
- They write with a lot of mistakes
- They read with difficulty
- They experience dizziness or nausea after straining their eyes
- They read materials drawn closer to or far from them
- They stumble a lot
- They may have reddened eyes
- They scratch their eyes
- They are very sensitive to light and sometimes squints or frowns when gazing at object
- Shuts or covers one eye, tilts head or thrusts head forward
- Eyes are inflamed or watery
- Frequent formation of mucus on the corner of the eye
2.2.3 Hearing Impairment (HI)
A hearing loss is defined by the degree of loss, the type of loss, and the age at which the loss occurred. Charles and Malian (1980) explain hearing impairment as a condition where individuals hearing is either partially functional or profoundly dysfunctional to the extent that such individuals cannot under normal circumstances acquire and use speech language with or without the use of a hearing or any special method. Hearing impairment encompass deafness and hard-of-hearing.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) defines deafness as a hearing impairment that is severe enough that the child cannot process linguistic information through hearing, even when using amplification or hearing aids. Individuals with deafness can only learn through sign language (Council for Exceptional Children, 2006).
Bender (1960) defines hard-of-hearing individuals as those in whom the sense of hearing, although defective, is functional with or without a hearing aid. Being hard of hearing is defined as an impairment in hearing that may be permanent or fluctuating and that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but that is not included under the definition of deafness (CEC, 2006).
The severity of hearing losses is determined by the individual’s reception of sound as measured in decibels (dB). A hearing loss between (20-40 dB) is considered mild; moderate HI ranges (40–60 dBs); severe HI (60–80 dBs) and profound (more than 80 dBs) hearing loss, or, to use a more common term, deafness (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association -ASHA, 2008).
Types of HI
In connection with clinical diagnosis and medical treatment, hearing impairment can be classified into four main types namely:
- Conducive hearing loss: This result from complications in the outer or middle ear, e.g. accumulation of wax, foreign materials in the auditory channel.
- Sensorineural learning loss: Loss result damage to the cochlea and auditory nerves in the inner ear.
- Central hearing loss: this is a type of hearing loss resulting from impairment of the central nervous system.
- Mixed hearing loss: This loss comes about when there are problems (1) and (2) above.
Causes of HI
- Infections of the ear canal or middle ear resulting in fluid or pus buildup
- Perforation or scarring of the eardrum
- Wax buildup
- Dislocation of the middle ear bones (ossicles)
- Foreign object in the ear canal
- Otosclerosis (an abnormal bone growth in the middle ear)
- Abnormal growths or tumors
- Noise pollution
- Heredity
- Diseases such as mumps, German measles
- Presbycusis: a hearing loss as a result of old age.
Characteristics of the HI
Children with hearing impairment exhibit several characteristics. Below are some of them:
- Tendency to ask for words to be repeated
- Tendency to rub ears repeatedly
- Shouts when speaking to someone
- Watches the lips movement of a speaker
- Fail to carry out simple instructions
- Appear reluctant to speak freely
- Difficulty in articulating certain speech sounds
- Experiences frequent earaches and running ears
- Frowning face, bending or cupping the ear to hear
- Discharge of fluid from the ear
2.2.4 Physical Disability (PD)
A physical disability is the long-term loss or impairment of part of a person’s body function, resulting in a limitation of physical functioning, mobility, dexterity or stamina. Due to the functional loss the person will experience the inability to perform normal movements of the body, such as walking and mobility, sitting and standing, use of hands and arms, muscle control, etc.
Physical disorders are confined to gross and fine motor disabilities. If there are no defects in any part of the body, it should be possible for a person to perform gross and fine motor skills. The gross motor skills include throwing, lifting, running, skipping and jumping. Fine motor skills involve activities such as cutting, writing, drawing, threading, buttoning and lacing and just to mention a few.
Types of PD
Though many types exist, they can be put under two major conditions. These are neurological or orthopaedic and musculoskeletal conditions.
The musculoskeletal disability is defined as the inability to carry out distinctive activities associated with movements of the body parts due to macular or bone deformities, diseases or degeneration. These deformities affect the muscles, bones and joints. For example muscular dystrophy, arthritis, clubfoot.
The neurological/orthopaedic disability is defined as the inability to perform controlled movements of affected body parts due to diseases, degeneration or disorder of the nervous system. These disorders stem from the brain, the spinal cord and network of nerves. This type of condition includes cerebral palsy epilepsy, spinal cord injury and spinal nerves.
Characteristics of PD
The characteristics are dependent on the part of the body that have the defect.
- Individuals especially with cerebral palsy experience problems in voluntary movement,
- They also experience delay in gross and fine motor development.
- poor motor coordination
- speech and communication problems
Causes of PD
The causes of physical disorder can either be Congenital or Acquired. Congenital may be due to prenatal period or complications resulting from the birth process whereas acquired condition arises principally from diseases and accident.
- Children born premature
- Chromosomes aberration
- Attempted abortion
- Spina Bifida (SB): Spina Bifida (SB) refers to a range of developmental birth defects that affect the spinal cord, leaving nerves open to damage
- Cerebral Palsy affects the way the brain controls the body’s muscles resulting in speech, movement and posture difficulties. In most cases it is caused by brain injury or abnormal development that occurs before birth or before one month of age.
- Acquired brain injuries: Acquired brain injuries result in physical disabilities. They occur after birth as a result of damage to the brain through accidents, strokes, tumours, infections, degenerative neurological diseases, or lack of oxygen.
- Malnutrition
- Diseases such as poliomyelitis, mother suffering from German measles.
2.3 Conception of Inclusive education
Inclusive education means that all children, regardless of their ability level, are included in a regular classroom, or in the most appropriate or least restrictive environment (LRE), that students of all ability levels are taught as equals, and that teachers must adjust their curriculum and teaching methodologies so that all students benefit. Inclusive education is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners. This involves restructuring the culture, policies and practices in schools so that they can respond to the diversity of students in their locality.
Inclusive Education (IE) is defined as a process of addressing the diverse needs of all learners by reducing barriers to, and within the learning environment. It means attending the age appropriate class of the child’s local school, with individually tailored support (UNICEF 2007). For a school to be inclusive, the attitudes of everyone in the school, including administrators, teachers, and other students, are positive towards students with disabilities. This also avoids wasting resources, and ‘shattered hopes,’ which often occurs in classrooms that are ‘one size fits all.’
2.3.1 Meaning of Exclusion in school
Exclusion is used to describe the process that occurs when a student is denied access to participation at school. This includes things such as access to the curriculum, access to friendship groups, access to teacher time and so forth (Booth, 1996).
Exclusion happens when students with disabilities are not permitted to register to attend a school, or when they register but are told not to come to school or when there are conditions placed on their attendance. Sometimes, students are registered but told they will receive their education from a teacher who will visit them at home – so effectively they are still excluded from school. Booth further defines exclusion is “the process of decreasing the participation of pupils in the cultures and curricula of mainstream schools” (pp. 34–35). Exclusion is restricting students to an environment with only special needs or disabled students.
Exclusion could also mean when students with disabilities are educated in separate environments (classes or schools) designed for students with impairments or with a particular impairment. Exclusion is most blatant when students with disabilities are forced to go to a school only for students with disabilities, but it also happens when students are educated in separate classes in a regular school. These are sometimes called resource classes.
2.3.2 Causes of Exclusion in School
There are many factors that account for the exclusion of learners with or without disabilities from school. Some of the causes include;
- Demonstrating persistent disruptive behaviour
- Physical assault against an adults and pupils
- Children’s health problems.
- Teachers and school administrators feel they don’t have the expertise to manage the instruction of students with special needs.
- Low level of educational performance of students can lead to their exclusion.
- Inability to settles school fees,
- Discriminatory treatment, or even violence, from principals, teachers and other students is also put forward as an aggravating factor.
2.3.3 Benefits of inclusive education
Including SEN has many benefits for the learner, parents, society and the state as well. Below are some of the benefits of inclusion:
- Inclusive education empowers teachers and students to think and work collaboratively.
- Promotes the notion that students with disabilities can learn alongside same-aged, non-disabled peers in the general education classroom (Willis, 2007).
- Research shows students with learning disabilities taught in such a manner demonstrate more independence and are socially better adjusted (Sapon-Shevin, 2008).
- It provides all children with opportunities to develop friendships with one another. Friendships provide role models and opportunities for growth.
- It encourages the involvement of parents in the education of their children and the activities of their local schools.
- Children without disabilities develop positive attitudes towards those different from them.
- It helps to reduce financial burden on society and government by providing one programme for all children rather than separate programmes.
2.3.4 Strategies for Promoting Inclusion in Schools
There are many ways of promoting inclusion of SEN in regular schools for the maximization of their potentials academically. Below are ways of promoting inclusion of SEN;
- School administrators clearly support and actively participate in providing leadership, guidance, and policies consistent with an inclusive philosophy.
- School Improvement Plans address school-based needs for including students with disabilities.
- All students receive instruction within an age-appropriate general education curricular framework.
- Teachers differentiate instruction for a variety of learners’ needs by incorporating visual, tactile, and kinesthetic materials and experiences.
- Teachers plan accommodations for students with disabilities, based on their IEP, and incorporate those accommodations into lesson plans and everyday instruction.
- Teachers use evidence-based instructional practices that are based on individual student learning styles and needs.
- General educators, special educators, and related service providers have time for collaborative planning.
- Students with disabilities receive most, if not all, of their special education and related services (e.g., physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech/language therapy) within the general education classroom, based on their Individual Education Program (IEP).
- Scaffold the lesson to provide various levels of support. Gradually remove supports as student’s progress toward mastery.
- Vary instructional methods and materials to meet the unique needs of learners.
- Assistive Technology: One of the support features of an IEP can be assistive technology, equipment or product systems that can meet some of the special needs of individual children with developmental disabilities (Parette, 1998). These assistive devices can use either low technology (such as communication boards or adapted books) or high technology (such as computerized visual amplification systems or augmentative communication devices that use digitized speech).
- Cooperative Learning: Cooperative learning is process whereby the teacher gives a task to a small group of students (typically four to six), who are expected to complete the task by working cooperatively with one another. The teacher may assign different responsibilities to different members of the group or ask each child to play a specific role (such as recorder, reporter, and searcher). Group instruction may actually be more advantageous than one-on-one instruction because of the economy of teacher effort, students learning how to interact with peers, and students learning from peers. Small-group instruction is the mode for the regular classroom if the students with special needs are to be included (King-Sears & Carpenter, 2005).
- Scaffolding: In scaffolding, the teacher models the expected behaviour and then guides the student through the early stages of understanding. As the student’s understanding increases, the teacher gradually withdraws aid (hence the name scaffolding). The goal is to have the student internalize the knowledge and operate independently.
- Positive Behaviour Supports (PBS): One of the most advanced moves made for children with disability has been the introduction of positive behavior supports (PBS) in educational programming. Behaviour problems and disruption have, unfortunately, been a major part of the lives of too many children with ID. This may be due in part to the fact that they have grown up in an environment in which such behaviour is the norm. It is therefore expected of teachers to help learners model and learn positive behaviour.
- Social Skills: Social skills are a critical component of the primary school or preschool curriculum for children with disability especially those with ID. Children can learn to take turns, share, and work cooperatively as part of their daily activities. The lunch table for young children is an excellent location for teaching social skills. Here, youngsters learn table manners, as well as how to pass and share food, help others (pouring juice, for example), and wait their
- Differentiated instruction describes the process where the teacher adjusts the level of difficulty of tasks to fit the level of development of the child. For example, if the rest of the class is doing complex multiplication or division problems, the child with intellectual disability may be given addition and subtraction problems at his or her level of comprehension.
- Reinforce effort and provide recognition.
- Monitor progress consistently and continually and provide frequent feedback.
-
Add a note